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Get the Military Insider Newsletter Get the latest on pay updates, benefit changes and award-winning military content. By signing up, you agree to our Privacy Notice. General guidelines for riding and hiking trails have been suggested in the California report: Additional hiking standards prepared by the Los Angeles Regional Planning Commission 24 recommend that trail stops be located six to 15 miles apart, that pathways be a minimum of six feet in width, and that trails be a minimum length of six to 12 miles.
Heavily used trails may need up to 80 spaces for cars and trailers. Adequate holding stalls, hitching racks, and water are of utmost importance. Clawson, Marion. Rand McNally and Co. Butler, George D. Standards for Municipal Recreation Areas. National Recreation Association. Revised edition, , p. Prepared by the Athletic Institute, , p. Municipal Auditoriums and the City Plan. Athletic Institute, p. California Public Outdoor Recreation Plan. Part I, pp. Standards of Recreational Facilities.
Bureau of Governmental Research, University of Washington, Wood, Samuel E. Planning Board, September , p. Source: Recreation Study and Facility Plan. Rockland County N. Allowance of square feet per automobile. Appendix E, above, shows 25 "effective feet" of shoreline in the vertical dimension, the standard used for shoreline swimming. It provides for 6, square feet of parking space, 2, square feet of buffer and picnicking area, 5, square feet of sunbathing and play area, and at least 1, square feet of water area for swimming.
It is designed to accommodate 50 persons at one time — the number that can be expected on a normal Sunday in the middle of the swimming season. During the entire day, persons could be accommodated, as a turnover rate of three may be expected.
The effective foot as a standard for shoreline swimming areas was derived from a study of attendance figures at a great number of recreation areas. It is based upon the number of persons on an "optimum day" rather than on a "peak day. It would, of course, be ideal to have no peak days when areas are overcrowded, but this was considered to be unrealistic.
In general, the optimum day, derived from the mean of the five specified days, often closely approximated the median, or sixth day. If the sixth most heavily used day at a recreation area was less than 70 percent of the first, or peak day, the area and its facilities were considered to be adequate for the present; if the sixth day showed attendance figures that were approximately 70 percent of the peak day, the area was barely adequate; if greater, it was being overused and overcrowded.
The effective foot as determined in this manner gives a measure of the swimming area and facilities necessary to accommodate the needs of the population. By these standards, recreation plans should provide for each 1, persons in the population to have available 25 effective feet of shoreline for swimming. In warm climates, one effective foot will furnish many more user days of swimming than it will supply in colder climates, as there will be many more days in which it is comfortable to swim.
It is likely that in northern climates, the 25 effective feet are not quite sufficient, as the few good swimming days will tend to call more of the population to the beach at one time. Introduction to Community Recreation. Revised edition, A Workshop Report, Athletic Institute, Guide for Planning Recreation Parks in California.
Keeble, Lewis. Principles and Practice of Town and Country Planning. Kent, Thomas J. Planning the Neighborhood. Play Space in New Neighborhoods.
Prospective Demand for Outdoor Recreation. George D. Butler, Editor. National Recreation Association, Recreation and the Town Plan. Recreation Is Everybody's Business. Recreation Manual. Recreation Study and Facility Plan.
Recreational Boating Facilities. Regional Recreation Area Study. Sports and Recreation Facilities, for School and Community. Alexander Gabrielsen and Caswell M. Miles, Prentice-Hall, September Bureau of Governmental Research. Recreational Uses Area Reservations acres 1 large city park acres 10 neighborhood parks acres 50 playgrounds acres Gardens and squares 50 acres Total 1, acres. Playgrounds 1. Minor parks 2.
Neighborhood Facilities A neighborhood is normally considered to be an area served by one elementary school. Playlot Playlots Table 2 are small areas intended for children of pre-school age. Table 2 Playlot Min. Local Planning Admin. Max: 5, sq. Pre-school 75 children or less to ' of every house and cross no streets 50 sq. Recreation Study Max: 5, sq. Playground The neighborhood playground Table 3 is an area which serves primarily the needs of the five—to year age group, but may also afford limited facilities to the entire neighborhood.
Table 3 Playground Min. Acreage Per 1, Pop. Medium density High density 5. If connected to a school more area needed American Public Health Association 2. Junior Playground In some neighborhoods, because of unusual conditions, it will be practically impossible, short of a drastic redevelopment project, to provide a standard children's playground of the size suggested. Figure 2 Study for development of junior playground. Neighborhood Park The purpose of the neighborhood park is to provide an attractive neighborhood setting and a place for passive recreation for people of all ages.
Table 4 Neighborhood Park Min. Area Necessary A. One or two family Multifamily 3. Playfield Min. Density in some cases Parking area required Local Planning Admin. Community Park Min. Major Parks Min. Reservations Desired Size Per 1, Pop. Area Required for A Small Stadium National Recreation Association 10 acres At a high school site or as a portion of a playfield Neighborhood or community level — convenient to transportation 20 acres Streator, Ill. The Athletic Institute 11 states that: The functional planning of stadia has purposely been directed chiefly at the larger and more inclusive and involved structures.
However, the following basic considerations should guide plans for smaller structures: All the principals of functional planning suggested for larger stadia are applicable to smaller structures; the specifics apply in number, to the degree and in a proportion dictated by the capacity, location, uses and future possibilities of the plant.
Water-Oriented Facilities Swimming pools. At Any One Time Sq. Winter facilities Winter recreation as used here refers to sports and activities that are dependent upon snow or below freezing temperatures, particularly snowplay, skiing, ice skating, and tobogganing, and in some measure sightseeing. Golf Courses The best golf courses will be on land specially selected for the purpose.
Table 11 Golf Min. Acreage Required Population Served Max. Acreage Required Service Radius Local Planning Administration 9 hole, 50 acres; 18 hole, acres 1 hole per 3, persons served; 27, pop. Type hole course Development Minimum size for a layout and effective operation is acres including necessary auxiliary facilities such as clubhouse, restaurant, and parking.
Parking Space for automobiles. Type 9-hole course Development Minimum size for layout and efficient operation is 60 acres including necessary auxiliary buildings. Figure 3 Nine-hole, par-3 course designed for maximum land use at minimum cost.
Yards Yards Yards 1 70 2 45 3 75 55 4 90 30 5 80 6 65 40 7 90 60 8 25 9 85 45 Total 1, Average Camp Sites Standards for four types of camping activities have been suggested in California's Recreation Plan, Part II : Type en-route Development 10 units per acre Parking one car space and space for trailer per unit Type organizational Development five acres developed with permanent facilities and structures for eating and sleeping to accommodate persons Parking minimum 50 spaces Type group Development five acres with sanitary and basic cooking facilities and open space for bedding or tents sufficient to accommodate not more than 50 persons for short periods of time Parking minimum of 25 cars Type family with tent or trailer Development four units per acre unit consists of table, cooking facilities, space for tent or bedding and screening Parking one car space for every unit.
Picnic Sites Picnicking facilities should be developed so that there is a proper balance among the three major types of facilities: those within communities, those outside the communities beyond the metropolitan fringe , and those along highways. Parking minimum parking for 25 cars at any one access point. On short scenic, well known trails, the parking area might be expanded to automobile parking spaces.
Type overnight hikes Development well defined trail with average grades of five per cent and none to exceed 15 per cent. There is immediate satisfaction with such leadership but not necessarily long-term positive effectiveness in coping with the stressful condi- tions.
What may be necessary are transformational leaders who evoke higher level needs, such as for the common good, and who move fol- lowers into a fully vigilant search for long-term readiness. In con- trast, mild person—leader relationships were successful and effective in noncrisis situations. As discussed earlier, inauthentic, pseudotransformational leaders are concerned with their own power, authority, and self-aggrandizement.
They may be charismatic, inspirational, intellectually stimulating, and individually considerate, but it is for their own sake rather than for the sake of their followers. For instance, followers may feel personally inadequate because of the gap between their self-perceived images of what they are and what they ideally should and would like to be.
Stress is increased if they feel they cannot reduce the gap. Their own frustration may result in aggression and feelings of dependency on others. The truly transformational leader manifests individualized consid- eration and converts crises into developmental challenges. True transformational leadership does not replace the transactional leadership that has provided the neces- sary structure for readiness. Rather, transformational leadership adds to transactional leadership Waldman et al.
Patriot Act following the September 11, , terrorist attacks. However, to be effective in stressful situations, leaders must organize the efforts of their followers in ways that promote vigilance, thorough search, thorough appraisal, and contingency planning to avoid defective coping with threat. Quick and easy decision making can be avoided by forming a decision-making group with members who differ in background and opinion Janis, To be effective in crisis conditions, leaders must be transforma- tional—able to rise above what their followers see as their immedi- ate needs and appropriate reactions.
To be effective, leaders need to be truly transformational in identifying and publiciz- ing the inadequacy of defensive pseudosolutions. To be effective for hypervigilant followers in a state of panic, leaders need to be truly transformational in providing goals transcending self-interests. Planning Ahead.
Effective political leaders prevent crises or their stressful effects by planning ahead Yarmolinsky, Effective transactional leaders practice active management-by-exception by set- ting up early warning mechanisms to avoid surprises produced in last- minute, hasty, ill-conceived behavior. Potential crises are recognized rationally without emotional upset. Appropriate searches for informa- tion can be instituted without hasty defensiveness. In this sense, the leadership takes on an important teaching function Yarmo- linsky, By anticipating potential crises, by preparing with active management-by-exception in advance for them, and by long-range, proactive, envisioning transformational leadership, leaders are more effective than if they only engage in dealing with immediate problems Katz, Direct survey evidence of the effects of transactional and transforma- tional leadership were obtained by Seltzer et al.
The MBAs indicated how often they experienced headaches, fatigue, irritability, loss of appetite, insomnia, and inability to relax. Table 5. As seen in Table 5. Contingent reward also helped reduce burnout -. They also found that if the other factors were held constant through multiple regression analysis, reported stress and burnout were less if one worked under a charismatic and individually considerate leader.
However, stress and burnout were somewhat higher if the MBAs worked at their full-time job under an intellectually stimulating leader. Transformational Charisma -. Seltzer, R. Numerof, and B. Copyright by Pennsylva- nia State University at Harrisburg. Overall, transformational leadership and contingent rewarding by leaders were effective in reducing feelings of stress and burnout; management-by- exception accomplished the opposite.
Inspirational leaders inspire courage and stimulate enthusiasm. The cyanide lacing of Tylenol on store shelves struck Johnson and Johnson in He rejected glossing over the di- saster. Rather, he converted the marketing disaster into an opportunity to gain credit for good citizenship.
McCauley pointed to a number of both transformational and transactional ways leaders can convert a stressful situation into a chal- lenging one. The leader practices contingent rewarding by ensuring that there will be positive outcomes, and followers know what these are. Clear and attainable goals are set. Interim rewards for progress are given. More generally, using intellectual stimulation, taxing condi- tions are converted into problems to be solved.
Envisioning, enabling, and empowering followers provides greater tolerance for ambiguity, uncertainty, and working with new and unfamiliar conditions. Pines summarized the ways that transformational lead- ers can provide the support that makes for hardy followers, quality performance, and effective decision making, despite the presence of distressful conditions. Leaders can present dramatic changes as chal- lenges, not as threats. Leaders can select followers who prefer a vigor- ous, fast-paced lifestyle and have the cognitive capacity and readiness to prepare themselves for coping adequately with the stress.
The intellectually stimulating leader can introduce the meta- phor of mountain climbers who do not look down the vertical cliff face and contemplate their dangerous exposure but instead concentrate on the holds and grips available immediately in front of them. It is important for the leaders themselves to believe they face a challenging problem rather than a crisis. They are more open to ideas and suggestions from their subordinates. More effective decisions are reached as a consequence.
Thus, Tjosvold arranged an experi- ment for students acting as managers to lead other students acting as subordinates. The subordinates were actually confederates of the ex- perimenter.
The managers were the actual subjects of the research and supposedly had to deal with an issue of job rotation. They were told they were in a crisis condition, a challenging condition, or a situation of minor consequence.
The managers who believed they were in a crisis were the most close-minded. They disagreed the most with their subordinates and were least interested in hearing more from them.
Transformational leaders reduce stress among followers by creating a sense of identity with a social network of support. Experienced stress is reduced as the follower is made to feel part of a larger entity. The insecurity of feeling isolated is replaced by the security of a sense of belonging.
The loss of social ties through ostracism and isolation can be deadly among primitive peoples. Pines listed numerous examples of effects found for people with the social support of close friends, relatives, and group associations in comparison to those with- out such social support. For instance, they had lower mortality rates than those without such social support.
Again, children in Israeli kib- butzim were less anxious during prolonged bombardments than were Israeli urban children. The children were dealt with ineffectively by leadership that was authoritarian and did not provide support, control, or good communications Nelson, Illustrating the importance of supportive individualized consider- ation in treating stress in combat is a card of information prepared for British noncoms to carry in a breast pocket.
Included in ways to help others with acute symptoms of stress are the following strategies: Do not overreact, remain calm yourself, do not ridicule, calm the soldier, reassure the soldier, show understanding, and team up with him for a while. Individually considerate leaders may help to set up a social network of support to overcome the feelings of stress and burnout.
But whether the leadership emerges and whether it is of consequence are contingent on situational circumstances. Civil War General George B. McClellan was loved and idealized by those in his command. He was highly effective in training and organizing his troops. However, in the different situation of combat, he was completely ineffective — almost laissez-faire. He was unable to win battles. Instead of advancing with his superior forces and doing battle with Lee, he retreated.
Had he ordered the advance, it could have reduced the length of the Civil War by 2 years. The style of his leadership, and its effectiveness, was contingent on whether he was training troops or leading them into combat. How stable is transformational leadership? Is transformational leadership more effective in certain situations? If so, what are those situations?
The effec- tive leader is transformational or transactional as conditions change. Burns noted that Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a practical, transactional experimentalist, as well as a charismatic with principles about social betterment. Because Britain was near bankruptcy and could not purchase the military goods the United States could sell to them, he initiated a lend—lease program.
Roosevelt arranged to lend the planes, tanks, and ships to Britain in exchange for offshore bases in the Bahamas, Bermuda, and other British colonies.
He had been a transactional politician, but as- suming the presidency, he became highly transformational. Theory and research support a variety of contingency theories of leadership. Relations-oriented leaders do best when situational control is moderate. Esteem and power of the leader and structure of the situation contribute to the favorableness of the situation to the leader. Contingencies include the motivation and expectancies of the follower and the structure of the situation.
Numerous other situational leadership theories, such as those of Hersey and Blanchard and Vroom and Yetton , posited dif- ferent leadership and decision styles for different kinds of situations. The best leaders demonstrate their ability to clarify the path to the goals.
Although Bass speculated on the individual and organizational constraints that would be con- ducive to more transactional or more transformational leadership, few empirical experiments have been attempted. There is considerable evidence that those leaders described by their followers as more frequently transformational are likely to be both sub- jectively and objectively more effective and satisfying than those more frequently transactional leaders who exchange promises of rewards for appropriate role enactment by subordinates.
Suppose we were to ask which particular leadership behaviors would be most likely to emerge and to be most effective in differing circumstances. Would a contingent model be in order? If the same leaders and groups underwent alternating periods of stress and steady states, would more transformational leader- ship emerge in crisis conditions and more transactional leadership in steady states? Would it be a matter of being just a bit more of one than the other when conditions changed?
In ongoing organizational life, transformational leadership generally has its impact regardless of situational circumstances. For example, contingent reward broke up as a factor among employees in a Chinese state enterprise Davis et al. The empirical question is whether the effects are more than marginal and have practical consequences for selection, training, development, and placement.
Does the best leadership use both transactional and transformational elements in varying amounts over any given period of time?
A contingent model would suggest that for supervising such simple, unskilled work with less educated employees, transactional leadership emphasizing contingent rewards and management-by-exception is most likely to be necessary and effective. Intellectual stimulation promoted their creative improvements of how the work can be done better. Individualized consideration focused on their individual needs for personal recogni- tion and improvement. All this is added to the extrinsic contingent rewarding of contests and prizes for performance.
So on the one hand, contingent theory supports a transactional approach. Howell offered a list of organizational and task conditions likely to affect the emergence of transactional leadership as an exchange re- lationship and of transformational leadership as charismatic, inspira- tional, and intellectually stimulating.
Table 6. Copyright by JAI Press. For instance, as shown in Table 6. Some evidence to support this overall notion is available. Effects of the form of leadership on sat- isfaction could be attributed to some extent to differences in follower characteristics, differences in tasks, or differences in organizational characteristics. Stability Versus Turbulence. More transactional leadership is likely to emerge and be relatively effective when leaders face a stable, predictable environment.
More transformational leadership is likely to emerge in organizations and be effective when leaders face an unstable, uncertain, turbulent environment. At the highest level of stability is the repetitive environment without change. It calls for stable leader reactions based on prec- edents—mainly transactional leadership. Transformational leadership Charisma 2. Howard, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Copyright by Jossey-Bass.
It requires leaders who use experience to react to changes — again the reaction of active management-by-exception appears adequate. At less stable levels where the environment changes more rapidly, the leader has to become more anticipatory or somewhat transformational. As change becomes discontinuous, the leader must seek opportunities for change. Finally, at the level where the environment is surprising, novel strategies and creativity need to be intellectually stimulated.
Results for several thousand cases comparing stable and unstable environments were in line with expectations. As shown in Table 6. Transactional management-by- exception was slightly higher in stable conditions. In some cases, leaders may create the contingent conditions requir- ing their leadership. Pseudotransformational leaders may actively generate the need for their charismatic leadership by manufacturing environmental crises Willner, Employees may come from populations who are indifferent or disenchanted with their lot.
Such inspirational leaders articulate a compelling vision. As noted in chapter 5, conditions of crisis, uncertainty, and turbu- lence make the emergence of charismatic leadership more likely than would occur in stable, routine conditions Bass, The correlation was. Inspirational leaders may reframe opportunities so that the environ- ment is transformed from a situation of threat into a situation of op- portunity.
Collectivistic Societies. Jung, Sosik, and Bass argued that more transformational leadership was likely to emerge in a collectiv- istic society than in an individualistic one. To begin with, in collectivistic societies, people tend to view their group and organization as an essential part of their lives Hofstede, Consequently, they are more attached to their groups, organizations, and societies than are those in individualistic societies.
They are more willing to subordinate their self-interests for the sake of their larger collectives Triandis, Emphasis is on group accomplishment. Individual aggrandizement is a threat to the collective. Depending on group performance for goal attainment, there is commitment to more long-term goals. Leung and Bozionelos found that in a Confucian culture the notion of attentive leadership is similar to the qualities of transformational leadership.
In collectivist cultures, group norms and values are more strongly adhered to and therefore provide a more powerful social control mechanism.
Deviant behavior is less tolerated. At the same time, in- dividual attitudes and personality are less likely to be correlated with explicit behavior. There is little need for theories that explain leader- ship in terms of personality contingencies in collective cultures.
Group harmony—particularly, in-group harmony — is prized along with in- dividual modesty Triandis, Goal attainment depends on group collaboration. They are less likely to involve universal exchanges such as money for information and goods. Promotion is based on seniority. There is a strong attachment to the organization, and individual goals are readily subordinated for the sake of the group ones. Work values are central. Management controls depend on group norms and social values rather than written rules.
Followers themselves can more easily iden- tify with the leader based on a mutual belief in a common purpose and when the followers already are group oriented. As a consequence, Jung et al. Followers already have a sense of shared fates with their leaders and organizations. Inspirational motivation is facili- tated in collectivist cultures because followers already are committed to collective accomplishment, group goals, and the meaningfulness of their own participation.
Thus, inspirational leadership is easier to bring about in a collectivistic culture because already present is a willingness to put forth extra effort on behalf of the organization and a high level of commitment to the collective accomplishment. Although the creativity of individual followers may be inhibited in collective societies, the long-term strategies of the leadership for the collective may enhance the patience required to achieve success with products, systems, and long-term goals.
Furthermore, the willingness of the leaders to turn their groups toward adapting and improving on Western technologies is illustrative of intellectual stimulation. The reverse was true for Japan. Walumbwa and Lawler found that collectivism moderates the effect of transformational leadership on work-related outcomes. Individualized consideration is also important and relevant in col- lectivistic cultures, making it easier to effect.
There is much paternal- ism. Yokochi, As noted earlier, particular exchanges of affection, emotional attachment, status, and service are more common. Hence, there is frequent use of individualized consideration to help followers reach collective goals:. Jung et al. In the collectivistic culture, transformational leadership emerges more readily because of its consistencies with the values of the culture. The tobacco industry would be an example of the opposite setting.
The basic organizational structure may be more or less amenable to transformational leadership. The sector in which the or- ganization resides may play a part.
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